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How to Manage Chronic Back Pain: Effective Solutions Explained

What if the key to relieving chronic back pain wasn’t just in medications or temporary fixes, but in simple, effective strategies that are often overlooked? Millions deal with this issue daily, yet few find lasting relief. Could small changes in posture, movement, or mindset make all the difference? This guide explores proven techniques that go beyond quick solutions—offering real, long-term comfort.

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What Are the Best Ways to Manage Chronic Back Pain?

Managing chronic back pain requires a comprehensive approach that includes exercise, physical therapy, medication, and lifestyle adjustments. While eliminating pain completely may not always be possible, strengthening the back muscles through regular movement helps reduce discomfort.

Beyond physical treatments, developing healthy habits and modifying the environment can make a significant difference. Adjusting posture at work, using ergonomic furniture, and maintaining a proper rest routine can help prevent pain from worsening. Emotional well-being also plays a role, as stress can intensify discomfort.

If pain persists and significantly affects daily life, consulting a pain specialist may be beneficial. Personalized approaches can include complementary therapies such as acupuncture or mindfulness to enhance quality of life. With the right treatment and a proactive mindset, managing chronic back pain and maintaining well-being is possible.

Exercise and Physical Therapy

Physical activity strengthens supportive muscles, improves flexibility, and reduces tension in the spine. A physical therapist can guide patients in selecting suitable exercises and creating a personalized plan to maximize benefits while preventing injury.

Exercises for Back Pain: Specific exercises can enhance mobility and reduce lower back pain. It is recommended to start with gentle, gradual movements, increasing intensity as the body adapts.

• Walking, swimming, or stationary cycling: Improves endurance and circulation.
• Backward bending: Stretches the lower back muscles.
• Bridge exercise: Strengthens abdominal and gluteal muscles, easing spinal pressure.
• Hip flexor stretches: Enhances posture and spinal stability.
• Back extensions: Increases flexibility and strengthens the lower back.
• Cat-cow stretch: Improves spinal mobility and reduces stiffness.
• Clamshell exercise: Strengthens hip muscles and improves lumbar stability.

These exercises should be performed consistently, gradually increasing repetitions based on the patient’s tolerance.

Physical Therapy for Back Pain: Physical therapy provides relief through various techniques aimed at strengthening muscles and reducing inflammation.

Therapy	Description
Stretching	Improves flexibility and reduces stiffness.
Core strengthening exercises	Builds abdominal and lower back muscles.
Weight training	Increases muscle endurance under professional supervision.
Hydrotherapy	Low-impact exercises performed in water.
Ultrasound and electrical stimulation	Uses waves and pulses to relieve pain.

A structured approach that includes exercise, therapy, and lifestyle adjustments can help manage chronic back pain effectively. Staying consistent and adapting routines based on progress is key.

Proper Posture and Ergonomics

The spine serves as a natural shock absorber, balancing body weight and enabling movement. Poor posture or prolonged static positions can strain muscles, alter spinal curvature, and lead to chronic pain.

Correct Posture to Prevent Back Pain: Maintaining proper posture helps align the spine and reduce muscle tension. The following principles support good posture:

• Keep head and shoulders upright: Prevents neck strain.
• Maintain a slight lower back arch: Supports the spine’s natural curve.
• Use lumbar support: Reduces pressure on spinal discs.
• Keep elbows close to the body: Lowers shoulder tension.
• Keep feet flat on the floor: Improves stability and weight distribution.
• Avoid slouching: Prevents muscle fatigue and lower back pain.

Ergonomics at Work and Home: Ergonomic adjustments minimize fatigue and enhance body efficiency. Practical steps include:

• Adjusting chair height so feet remain flat on the floor with knees at a 90° angle.
• Positioning monitors at eye level to avoid neck strain.
• Organizing workspaces ergonomically, keeping frequently used items within reach.
• Taking breaks and changing positions every 45 minutes to relieve accumulated tension.

Small adjustments in sitting, standing, and sleeping posture can ease spinal stress.

Pain Medications and Topical Treatments

Managing chronic back pain may involve analgesics, muscle relaxants, topical treatments, and injections in severe cases. Treatment selection depends on the pain’s cause and intensity.

Pain Relievers for Back Pain

Analgesics are commonly used to reduce inflammation and discomfort.

Type	Examples	Benefit
NSAIDs (Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs)	Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Celecoxib, Diclofenac, Meloxicam, Piroxicam	Reduce inflammation and pain.
Simple Analgesics	Acetaminophen	Relieves mild to moderate pain.

Prolonged use may lead to side effects affecting the stomach, kidneys, or cardiovascular system, so medical supervision is recommended.

Topical Creams and Treatments

Gels and creams provide localized relief when applied directly to the affected area. Ingredients like menthol, capsaicin, or arnica can help reduce inflammation and improve circulation.

Combining medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle changes enhances long-term pain management.

Heat and Cold Therapy

Also known as contrast therapy, alternating heat and cold effectively alleviates chronic back pain. Cold therapy reduces inflammation and numbs acute pain, while heat relaxes muscles and improves circulation. The choice depends on the pain’s cause and stage.

Cold Therapy: Best within the first two days after an injury to reduce inflammation and nerve activity.

Heat Therapy: Ideal for chronic lower back pain, relaxing muscles and increasing blood flow.

Heat for Back Pain: Heat therapy is most effective in cases of chronic low back pain, where there is no active inflammation.

This technique consists of:

1. Apply cold for 15 minutes to minimize inflammation.
2. Wait a few minutes to allow the body to adjust.
3. Apply heat for 15–20 minutes to relax muscles.

Proper use of heat and cold can provide effective pain relief when tailored to the patient’s condition.

Mind-Body Techniques

Mind-body approaches help manage chronic pain by strengthening the connection between mental focus and physical sensations. These strategies promote relaxation, reduce stress, and encourage pain acceptance rather than resistance.

• Mindfulness: Involves focusing on the present without judgment, observing pain sensations objectively.
• Deep Breathing: Uses controlled breathing patterns to calm the nervous system.
• Meditation and Visualization: Creates calming mental images to shift focus from pain.

Integrating these techniques into daily routines enhances long-term benefits. If pain persists, consulting a specialist may be beneficial.

Consulting a Specialist for Chronic Back Pain

Seeking a specialist is advisable when back pain lasts more than a week, worsens despite treatment, or limits daily activities. Orthopedic doctors and neurosurgeons evaluate the condition and recommend appropriate treatments based on the cause.

Signs that indicate the need for a consultation include pain radiating to other areas, numbness, tingling, weakness, or fever. Identifying the root cause allows for tailored treatment.

Medical treatment addresses risk factors that aggravate pain. Many cases improve through a combination of medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle modifications, reducing the likelihood of surgery. If pain persists despite conservative treatments, consulting a spine specialist ensures access to advanced solutions.

Sources:

• Weiner, S. S., & Nordin, M. (2010). Prevention and management of chronic back pain. Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology, 24(2), 267-279.
• Deyo, R. A., Mirza, S. K., Turner, J. A., & Martin, B. I. (2009). Overtreating chronic back pain: time to back off?. The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 22(1), 62-68.

Does Pain Management Prescribe Narcotics for Chronic Pain?

When chronic pain takes over daily life, finding relief becomes a top priority. With concerns about addiction and side effects, many wonder: does pain management rely on narcotics as the primary solution? Or are there safer, more effective alternatives? The answer isn’t as straightforward as it might seem. Let’s explore the truth behind pain management strategies and what patients should really expect.

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When Are Narcotics Used in Pain Management Treatment?

Narcotics, also known as opioids, are used to treat moderate to severe pain, especially when other painkillers have not been effective. They are commonly prescribed when pain is intense and difficult to manage, such as after surgeries, serious injuries, or in cases of chronic pain related to severe diseases.

Types of Pain Treated with Narcotics

Narcotics can be prescribed for different clinical scenarios depending on the duration and intensity of the condition.

• Acute Pain: Short-term pain, usually from surgeries or injuries.
• Chronic Pain: Pain lasting over three months, often related to serious illnesses.

Narcotics can be effective for managing moderate to severe pain, but their use is limited to situations where other treatments have not been effective.

Acute Post-Surgical Pain

Acute post-surgical pain is a major concern after surgery, as it can affect recovery and the patient’s well-being. Narcotics like morphine or fentanyl may be used, but they should be combined with multimodal analgesia strategies to improve effectiveness and reduce side effects.

Opioids are potent pain relievers used to manage pain after surgery. Due to their potential to cause side effects, their use should be controlled and limited in duration.

In the immediate postoperative period, pain management should rely on multimodal analgesia. This involves combining non-opioid painkillers, controlled doses of opioids, and nerve blocks based on the patient’s specific needs.

An effective option is intrathecal morphine, which provides rapid and sustained relief of early post-surgical discomfort, allowing for better recovery.

Managing acute post-surgical pain requires a comprehensive approach that combines opioids with other strategies to maximize effectiveness and minimize side effects. Multimodal analgesia plays a key role in controlling discomfort and ensuring a more comfortable recovery for the patient.

Cancer Pain

Cancer pain interferes with daily activities and has a significant emotional impact. Due to its intensity, it is important to address it with a comprehensive approach that combines different methods to achieve effective and sustained relief. Among the available options, opioids are the main treatment for moderate to severe pain, always under strict medical supervision to ensure safe use.

While opioids are highly effective in controlling cancer pain, their administration must be closely monitored to prevent side effects like drowsiness, nausea, or dependency. For this reason, doctors adjust doses individually and constantly assess the patient’s response.

Beyond opioid use, various complementary strategies can enhance pain relief for cancer patients. Combining these approaches allows for personalized treatment and improved patient well-being, promoting a better quality of life throughout their medical care.

Uncontrollable Chronic Pain

For uncontrollable chronic pain, narcotic treatment may be an option, but its use should be carefully evaluated by a doctor due to the associated risks and benefits.

Narcotics are highly potent medications that can be prescribed when pain is so intense that it prevents daily activities or when other painkillers have not been effective.

Although narcotics may offer short-term relief, long-term use requires medical caution, as they can lead to tolerance and other side effects.

Treating uncontrollable chronic pain with narcotics can be helpful in specific situations, but it must be considered with care. While these medications block the sensation of pain, they do not address the cause, so their use should be part of an integrated pain management plan supervised by a healthcare professional.

Traumatic Pain or Severe Injuries

Traumatic pain or pain caused by severe injuries can be intense and debilitating, requiring proper management to ensure the patient’s recovery. In these cases, pain treatment may include narcotic painkillers, always under strict medical supervision, along with other therapeutic approaches like physical therapy and complementary medications.

Opioids are powerful pain relievers that can provide relief from severe pain after a traumatic injury or major surgery. However, their use must be controlled due to the associated risks, such as tolerance and dependency.

Managing traumatic pain or severe injuries may require the use of opioids, but their use should be carefully monitored due to potential side effects and the risk of dependency.

Terminal Illness Pain

Medications that act on the nervous system, such as gabapentin or pregabalin, can be used to address neuropathic discomfort caused by terminal illnesses.

Opioids are typically administered regularly to maintain pain control and prevent exacerbation of symptoms.

Functions of the Palliative Care Team

• Relieve pain and other physical symptoms, such as difficulty breathing.
• Provide emotional and psychological support to the patient and family.
• Educate about treatments and side effects of medications.
• Detect and address symptoms early to improve quality of life.

This team works together to ensure that the patient receives care from the beginning of therapy and throughout the illness, ensuring comprehensive support.

Professional Care for Chronic Pain Relief

When it comes to relieving chronic discomfort, seeking specialized care is essential for an integrated and effective approach. For those suffering from persistent pain, there are various options where trained professionals offer specific treatments. This may include pain clinics, pain rehabilitation centers, or consultations with pain specialists, who provide a multidisciplinary approach to address the multiple aspects of chronic suffering.

Pain clinics are specialized centers that focus on the diagnosis and comprehensive treatment of chronic pain. These clinics offer a multidisciplinary approach that includes various treatment modalities. They have teams of professionals, including doctors, physical therapists, and psychologists, working together to create a treatment plan tailored to the individual needs of each patient.

These programs focus on restoring mobility, strengthening the body, and providing strategies to effectively manage discomfort. Finally, pain specialists, doctors specialized in chronic pain management, have a deep knowledge of the various techniques and treatments available, allowing them to customize a therapeutic approach that addresses both the physical and emotional aspects of pain.

Sources:

• Wardhan, R., & Chelly, J. (2017). Recent advances in acute pain management: understanding the mechanisms of acute pain, the prescription of opioids, and the role of multimodal pain therapy. F1000Research, 6, 2065.
• Wang, J., & Christo, P. J. (2009). The influence of prescription monitoring programs on chronic pain management. Pain physician, 12(3), 507.

What Does a Pain Management Doctor Do?

Imagine living with chronic pain that never truly fades—every step, every movement, a constant reminder of discomfort. You’ve tried everything, yet relief seems just out of reach. But what if the solution isn’t just about medication or surgery? What does a Pain Management Doctor really do, and how can they transform the way you experience pain? The answer might surprise you.

Learn more about pain management in the Bronx today!

How Can a Pain Management Doctor Help with Chronic Pain?

Managing chronic pain requires a personalized approach. A specialist in pain treatment focuses on relieving symptoms through a combination of medical, physical, and psychological therapies. Below are the primary ways a specialist can help manage chronic pain.

Pain management begins with a thorough evaluation. Based on this assessment, a personalized treatment plan is developed, often combining different therapies for better control. Among these options, medication plays a significant role in symptom relief.

In addition to medications, physical therapy can improve mobility and reduce pain intensity. Physical therapy strengthens muscles and enhances movement, while manual therapy helps relieve muscle tension.

Diagnoses the Underlying Cause of Pain

A pain management specialist, also known as an algologist, focuses on identifying the root cause of pain to provide appropriate treatment. This process follows a structured approach, including various stages of evaluation and diagnosis.

Comprehensive Evaluation

The first step in diagnosis is a complete patient assessment, which includes:

• Detailed medical history: Review of past conditions, previous treatments, and pain progression.
• Thorough physical examination: Tests to identify physical signs related to pain.
• Diagnostic tests

Identifying the Cause of Pain

The goal of this evaluation is to determine what is causing the pain. Possible causes include:

• Injuries: Fractures, sprains, or muscle damage.
• Diseases: Arthritis, fibromyalgia, and other chronic conditions.
• Neurological issues: Neuropathies or nerve compression.
• Combined factors: Pain arising from multiple causes requiring a comprehensive approach.

A precise and structured diagnosis ensures that treatment is tailored to each patient’s specific condition. With the right approach, pain management specialists can offer solutions that improve quality of life.

Prescribes and Manages Pain Medication

Using medication to control pain is a fundamental strategy in pain management. Specialists prescribe and adjust pain relievers based on each patient’s needs, considering the type and duration of pain as well as potential risks and benefits.

Pain relievers are designed to reduce or eliminate pain. Different types exist, each with unique properties, advantages, and risks. Not all pain responds equally to medication, making it essential to select the right one based on the patient’s condition.

Administers Interventional Treatments

Interventional pain treatment is an advanced approach that provides relief through minimally invasive techniques. These methods aim to address the underlying cause of pain rather than just managing symptoms with medication.

Interventional pain management includes:

• Nerve blocks: Injections of anesthetics or steroids into specific nerves to block pain signals.
• Therapeutic injections: Epidural or joint injections to reduce inflammation and relieve pain.
• Radiofrequency ablation: Uses radio waves to deactivate nerves that transmit pain.
• Kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty: Procedures to stabilize spinal fractures and reduce pain.
• Regenerative medicine: Uses biological therapies to aid tissue recovery.
• Neuromodulation: Electrical stimulation of the spinal cord or peripheral nerves to alter pain perception.
• Intrathecal pump therapy: Direct administration of pain-relieving medication into the spinal cord for effective relief.
• Minimally invasive lumbar decompression: Procedure to relieve pain caused by spinal canal narrowing.

These procedures are performed in surgical environments equipped with advanced imaging technology for accuracy and safety.

Candidates for Interventional Treatment

A pain specialist carefully evaluates each patient before recommending an interventional procedure. Ideal candidates include:

No response to conventional treatments	Patients who have not found relief with medication or traditional therapies.
Adverse reactions to medication	Individuals who experience severe side effects from pain relievers.
Comprehensive evaluation	The specialist considers genetic, metabolic, emotional, social, and behavioral factors to determine the best treatment.

Interventional pain treatment offers a safe and effective alternative for those seeking relief beyond medication. Its personalized approach improves functionality and overall well-being.

Recommends Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation

Physical therapy and rehabilitation are essential components of pain management. Pain specialists collaborate with physical therapists and other professionals to provide an integrated approach that helps patients improve mobility and quality of life.

Physical Therapy

• Uses therapeutic exercises, manual therapy, and relaxation techniques.
• Reduces pain without relying exclusively on medication.

Role in Pain Management

• Helps patients improve physical function and decrease pain intensity.
• Adapted to each patient based on condition and pain level.

Collaboration with the Pain Specialist

• Physical therapists work closely with pain specialists to optimize treatment.
• Exercise and mobility plans are tailored to each patient’s needs.

Rehabilitation

• Focuses on restoring mobility and strengthening muscles.
• Enhances functional capacity.

Rehabilitation plays a vital role in chronic pain management by promoting recovery, reducing medication dependence, and improving patient autonomy.

Monitors and Adjusts Treatment Plans

Pain management is a dynamic process requiring continuous adjustments to ensure effectiveness and accommodate each patient’s evolving needs. Specialists track patient progress, evaluate treatment responses, and modify plans as necessary.

Depending on the patient’s response, adjustments may include medication dosage changes, alternative therapies, or additional interventional procedures. The goal is always to provide the most relief with the least impact on daily life.

Collaboration between physicians, physical therapists, psychologists, and other specialists ensures a well-rounded approach to improving functionality and overall well-being. Through teamwork and continuous monitoring, timely adjustments can optimize treatment outcomes.

Sources:

• Weiner, R. S. (Ed.). (2001). Pain management: A practical guide for clinicians. CRC Press.
• Waldman, S. D. (2011). Pain management E-book. Elsevier Health Sciences.

How to Prepare for Pain Management Appointment?

You’ve finally scheduled your Pain Management Appointment, hoping for real relief—but are you prepared? Many patients expect quick solutions but leave feeling uncertain about the next steps. A few simple preparations can make a big difference in your treatment journey. Knowing what to bring, what to ask, and what to expect can help you manage your pain more effectively.

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What Should I Bring to My Pain Management Appointment?

For your appointment, bringing the right information helps your doctor evaluate your case accurately and recommend the best treatment. Some essential items include your medical history, a detailed list of medications, imaging studies, previous medical tests, questions for your doctor, and any relevant personal health information.

Your medical history should cover past and current health conditions, previous surgeries, and the names of other doctors involved in your treatment. Regarding medications, provide a list including names, dosages, and frequency of use, including supplements and herbal remedies.

To get the most out of your consultation, prepare a list of questions about your pain’s cause, treatment options, and potential side effects of medications. Sharing emotional or stress-related factors that may influence your pain is also helpful. Bringing a notebook for notes and having a support person can make your appointment even more productive.

1. Track Your Pain

Keeping a detailed pain journal is essential for improving pain management and optimizing treatment. Tracking your symptoms regularly helps identify patterns, assess treatment effectiveness, and provide your doctor with valuable information for a more precise approach.

Pain Diary: A pain diary documents how pain affects your daily life. Key details to include:

• Location: Where do you feel the pain most?
• Type: Is it sharp, dull, burning, throbbing?
• Duration: How long does each episode last?
• Triggers and Relief Factors: What worsens or alleviates your pain?

Impact on Daily Activities: Pain can interfere with everyday tasks. Consider recording:

• Activities limited by pain.
• Changes in daily routines due to pain intensity.
• Effects on sleep and mood.

Medication and Treatment Log: If you take medications for pain, tracking their use helps your doctor evaluate their effectiveness. Note:

• Medication type and dosage.
• Frequency of use.
• Level of pain relief.
• Any side effects or reactions.

Pain is a complex, individual experience. Advances in medicine offer various treatment options, but therapy should always be personalized. Keeping a pain journal improves communication with your doctor and enhances your quality of life.

2. Prepare a List of Questions

Having a list of questions ready for your appointment helps you make informed decisions about your treatment. Below are key questions to guide your conversation with the specialist.

Questions About Diagnosis and Pain Causes

• What is causing my pain?
• Is my pain chronic or acute?
• What tests are needed to confirm the diagnosis?
• What type of pain do I have? (Neuropathic, musculoskeletal, inflammatory, etc.)
• Are there ways to prevent my pain from getting worse?

Questions About Treatment

• What treatment options are available for my pain?
• Which option is best for me?
• What side effects should I expect from treatment?
• How long will it take to see results?
• What should I expect during pain management treatment?
• What medications can I take, and how should I take them?
• Do I need physical therapy or rehabilitation?
• Are there activity restrictions I should follow?
• Would psychological or emotional support help me?

Questions About Managing Pain at Home

• What can I do at home to relieve my pain?
• What exercises or activities might help?
• Will diet or lifestyle changes help manage my pain?
• When should I contact you if my pain worsens?
• What if my pain does not improve?

Having this list ensures you address all your concerns and work effectively with your doctor to find the best pain management solution.

3. Bring a Support Person

Having a support person at your appointment can make a significant difference in your well-being. They provide emotional support, improve communication with your doctor, and help with treatment follow-through.

Better Communication: A support person can help explain your symptoms more clearly. Pain can make it difficult to concentrate, so having someone who can supplement information is beneficial.

Information Retention: Medical appointments can be overwhelming. A support person can:

• Take notes on diagnoses and recommended treatments.
• Remind you of questions you planned to ask.
• Ensure you understand your doctor’s instructions.

Emotional Support: Chronic pain affects both physical and emotional health. Having a support person at your appointment provides reassurance and makes the treatment process easier to handle.

Treatment Participation: After your appointment, a support person can:

• Help you follow your treatment plan.
• Remind you to take medications on time.
• Accompany you to therapy or rehabilitation sessions.

Reduced Stress: Knowing you have someone supporting you can ease the stress of medical visits. It can make the experience more manageable and productive.

4. Review Your Medical History

Organizing your medical history before your appointment helps your doctor develop an effective treatment plan. A detailed record of your pain history and previous treatments makes the consultation more efficient.

Essential Medical History Information:

1. Identification Details
   
   • Full name
   • Date of birth
   • Blood type
   • Emergency contact
2. Medical Background
   
   • Family history of relevant illnesses
   • Personal history of diseases, allergies, surgeries, hospitalizations
   • Social factors like alcohol or tobacco use, physical activity level
3. Reason for Consultation
   
   • Specific reasons for seeking medical care
   • Expectations for pain management
4. Medical Tests and Exams
   
   • Bring previous lab tests, X-rays, or MRIs if available.
5. Past Diagnoses and Treatments
   
   • Previous diagnoses related to your pain
   • Medications or procedures you have tried
   • How your pain has changed over time
6. Consent Forms
   
   • Some procedures may require signing a consent form.

A well-prepared medical history helps your doctor make informed decisions and tailor your treatment plan.

5. Be Open About Your Pain Levels and Limitations

Being honest about your pain levels and limitations helps your doctor design an effective treatment plan. Various tools measure pain intensity and its impact on daily life.

Numeric Scale (0-10)

Score	Pain Level
0	No pain
1-3	Mild pain
4-6	Moderate pain
7-9	Severe pain
10	Worst pain imaginable

Visual Analog Scale (VAS): A horizontal line where one end represents “no pain” and the other “worst pain imaginable.” Patients mark a point along the line that reflects their pain level.

Verbal Pain Scale: Uses descriptive terms instead of numbers:

• None: No pain
• Mild: Manageable discomfort
• Moderate: Pain that interferes with daily activities
• Severe: Intense pain limiting most activities

Evaluating how pain affects daily life, tracking changes, and openly discussing it with your doctor helps create a treatment plan suited to your needs.

Why Choose Our Pain Management Services?

Our approach focuses on precise diagnosis, personalized treatments, and comprehensive care. Using a multidisciplinary team, we combine advanced medical strategies with non-invasive therapies to treat both acute and chronic pain. Our commitment is to help patients regain function and reduce pain’s impact on daily activities.

We offer individualized treatments tailored to each patient’s specific needs. Lifestyle modifications and holistic approaches complement our methods to ensure effective pain relief.

Our team of specialists uses cutting-edge technology and collaborates with other medical professionals to provide comprehensive care. Whether managing musculoskeletal, neuropathic, or chronic pain conditions, we deliver effective and safe solutions to enhance quality of life.

Sources:

• Katz, N. (2002). The impact of pain management on quality of life. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 24(1), S38-S47.
• Horgas, A. L., Yoon, S. L., & Grall, M. (2012). Pain management. Evidence-Based Geriatric Nursing Protocols for Best Practice, Springer Publishing Company.